代做EA50JG Offshore Structural Design – Jacket Platforms 5 Actions代做Java语言
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5.1 Introduction
This section describes the loads and design situations that must be considered in the design of jackets. The design situations that must be considered depend on the code of practice adopted.
5.2 ASD vs. LRFD
Jackets can either be designed to allowable stress design (ASD) or load and resistance factor design (LRFD) codes of practice. The difference between the two methods is the manner in which the relationship between applied loads and member capacities are handled.
LRFD codes accounts separately for the predictability of applied loads through the use of load factors applied to the required strength side of the limit state inequalities and for material and construction variability through resistance factors on the nominal strength side of the limit state inequality. ASD combines the two factors into a single factor of safety. By breaking the factor of safety apart into the independent load and resistance factors (as done in the LRFD approach) a more consistent effective factor of safety is obtained and can result in safer and lighter structures, depending on the predictability of the load types being used.
The following discusses both ASD and LRFD methodologies, however it is important to remain consistent within a given design to ensure that the code implicit reliability is achieved.
5.2.1 ASD
Historically API RP2A WSD [1] has been the dominant design code for offshore structures and is by far the most commonly adopted allowable stress code.
In an allowable stress check the loads remain unfactored and a factor of safety is applied to the characteristic resistance to obtain an allowable resistance.
5.2.2 LRFD
In LRFD design, partial factors are applied to the loads and to the characteristic resistance of the element, reflecting the amount of confidence placed in the design value of each parameter and the degree of risk accepted under a limit state. The magnitude of the load factor represents the uncertainty in the load under consideration. Partial resistance factors are applied to member and joint resistances. In ISO 19902 [2], different partial resistance factors are used for steel in tension (1,05), compression (1,18), bending (1,05) and shear (1,05). For design to NORSOK N-003 [3] all partial resistance factors are taken as 1.15. Different limit states are considered including:
Ultimate Limit State (ULS): corresponds to an ultimate event considering the structural resistance with appropriate reserve.
Fatigue Limit State (FLS): relates to the possibility of failure under cyclic loading.
Progressive Collapse Limit State (PLS): reflects the ability of the structure to resist collapse under accidental or abnormal conditions. In the ISO terminology this is referred to as Accidental Limit State (ALS).
Service Limit State (SLS): corresponds to criteria for normal use or durability (often specified by the plant operator).
Different types of actions for design of jackets and their corresponding ASD and LRFD are described in the following sections.
5.3 Functional Loads
Unlike onshore structures, functional loads on an offshore platform are very well defined owing to the rigorous approach adopted to weight control. This is essential when the majority of structures are lifted into place by large offshore cranes and lift weight must be known to within 2% accuracy by the installation contractor prior to lift.
Methods used to predict these functional loads have changed little over the years but, with the continuing trend to reduce weight, it can be expected that rigorous control of functional loads will continue. The large topside weights of 30,000 Te installed on first generation jackets are now the exception rather than the rule and the general trend is for smaller topside facilities with resultant lower jacket weight to take advantage of a lift-installed jacket instead of a heavier and more expensive launched jacket.
5.3.1 Permanent (Dead) Loads
Permanent actions are actions that will not vary in magnitude, position or direction during the time period considered.
Dead loads are loads resulting from the weight of the platform structure, any permanent equipment and appurtenance structures which do not change with the mode of operation. Dead loads include the following:
● Weight of the structure in air, including the weight of grout and ballast, if necessary.
● Weights of equipment, attachments or associated structures which are permanently mounted on the platform.
● Hydrostatic forces on the various members below the waterline. These forces include buoyancy and hydrostatic pressures. Sealed tubular members must be designed for the worst condition when flooded or non-flooded.
In addition to dead loads, permanent loads includes loads imposed by self-weight of equipment and other objects that remain constant for long periods of time, but which can change from one mode of operation to another or change during a mode of operation as permanent loads. This includes:
● Weight of drilling and production equipment that can be added to or removed from the structure;
● Weight of living quarters, heliport and other life-support equipment, diving equipment, and utilities equipment, which can be added to or removed from the structure.
Dead or permanent loads are also commonly referred to as dry loads.
5.3.2 Variable (Operating or Live) Loads
Variable actions originate from normal operation of the structure and vary in position magnitude and direction during the period considered. Variable loads include:
● Weight of consumables, supplies and liquids in storage tanks;
● Forces exerted from operations such as drilling, material handling;
● Vessel mooring and helicopter landing;
● Loads on storage/laydown areas;
● Weight of marine growth;
● Ice and snow Loads.
● Forces due to deck crane usage.
Variable loads are also commonly referred to a live loads or operating loads.
5.4 Fabrication and installation loads
These loads are temporary and arise during fabrication and installation of the platform or its components. During fabrication, erection lifts of various structural components generate lifting forces, while in the installation phase forces are generated during platform loadout, transportation to the site, launching and upending, as well as during lifts related to installation.
For fabrication and installation conditions each member, joint and other relevant component shall be checked for strength using the internal force:
Fd = GT + QT + T
Where:
GT is the action imposed either by the weight of the structure in air, or by the submerged weight of the structure in water, during the transient situation being considered, including any permanent equipment or other objects and any piles or conductors installed on the structure, as well as any ballast installed in or carried by the structure;
QT is the action imposed by the weight of the temporary equipment or other objects, including any rigging installed or carried by the structure, during the transient situation being considered;
T represents the actions from the transient situation being considered, including:
● when appropriate, environmental actions;
● when appropriate, a suitable representation of dynamic effects;
● for lifting, the effects of fabrication tolerances and variances in sling length;
● for loadout, allowances for misalignment;
● for transportation, any hydrostatic and hydrodynamic actions on the structure, including any inertial actions resulting from accelerations of the structure
● for installation, the lifting actions and hydrostatic pressure actions on the structure.
5.4.1 LRFD
For LRFD partial factors must be applied to GT, QT and T. For ISO 19902 the load combinations to be considered and appropriate partial factors are given in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 ISO Partial Load Factors for transient situations [2]
5.4.2 ASD
When considering transportation and launch with environmental actions, API RP2A allows for the basic allowable stresses for member design may be increased by 1/3. This increase in allowable stress cannot be used for lift, fabrication or loadout and cannot be used for cases without environmental loading.
5.4.3 Fabrication
Fabrication forces are those forces imposed upon individual members, component parts of the structure, or complete units during the unloading, handling and assembly in the fabrication yard (Figure 5.1).
Jacket structures, particularly large or slender structures, or those with particularly slender structural components, should be reviewed to determine whether analysis for fabrication is required.
Where such analysis is undertaken, consideration shall be given to the sequence and to the completeness of fabrication (e.g. whether welding has been completed at particular joints) in determining action effects.
Specific consideration shall also be given to the stability and strength of structural components during fabrication and to the need for any temporary supports or strengthening. Adequate support for equipment subjected to temporary actions, such as for crane footings, should be demonstrated.
In addition to the associated permanent and variable actions, the effects of wind-induced vortex shedding vibrations on long slender members during fabrication should be considered.
Figure 5.1 Jacket during erection
5.4.4 Lift
Lifting forces are imposed on the structure by erection lifts during the fabrication and installation stages of platform construction. The magnitude of such forces should be determined through the consideration of static and dynamic forces applied to the structure during lifting and from the action of the structure itself.
Lifting forces are functions of the weight of the structural component being lifted, the number and location of lifting eyes used for the lift, the angle between each sling and the vertical axis and the conditions under which the lift is performed (see Figure 5.2).
Figure 5.2 Lifts under various condition
Lifting attachments can be of various forms, including the following:
● Padeyes, where a shackle pin passes through a hole in a padeye plate attached to or built into the structure, the sling being connected to the shackle.
● Trunnions, where the sling, or an eye of a sling, passes round a short tubular which transfers the forces into the structure, and which allows rotation of the sling around the axis of the trunnion.
● Padears, which are similar to trunnions, but in which rotation of the sling is not intended.
All members and connections of a lifted component must be designed for the forces resulting from static equilibrium of the lifted weight and the sling tensions. Moreover, API-RP2A recommends that in order to compensate for any side movements, lifting eyes and the connections to the supporting structural members should be designed for the combined action of the static sling load and a horizontal force equal to 5% this load, applied perpendicular to the padeye at the centre of the pinhole.
All these design forces are applied as static loads if the lifts are performed in the fabrication yard. If, however, the lifting derrick or the structure to be lifted is on a floating vessel, then dynamic load factors should be applied to the static lifting forces. In particular, for lifts made offshore API-RP2A recommends two minimum values of dynamic load factors: 2.0 and 1.35. The first is for designing the padeyes as well as all members and their end connections framing the joint where the padeye is attached, while the second is for all other members transmitting lifting forces. For loadout at sheltered locations, the corresponding minimum load factors for the two groups of structural components become, according to API-RP2A, 1.5 and 1.15, respectively.
ISO 19902 recommend a dynamic load factor of 1.3 (1.1 if heavy lift by semi-submersible crane vessel is used) for offshore lifts and a factor of 1.1 for onshore lifts. For the design of lifting attachments and members connecting to the joint where the lifting attachments is attached this should be combined with a local factor of 1.25 for lift in open water and 1.15 for lift onshore or in sheltered waters.
5.4.5 Loadout
Loadout forces are generated when the jacket is loaded from the fabrication yard onto the barge. If the loadout is carried out by direct lift, then, unless the lifting arrangement is different from that to be used for installation, lifting forces need not be computed, because lifting in the open sea creates a more severe loading condition which requires higher dynamic load factors. If loadout is done by skidding the structure onto the barge, a number of static loading conditions must be considered, with the jacket supported on its side. Such loading conditions arise from the different positions of the jacket during the loadout phases, (as shown in Figure 5.3), from movement of the barge due to tidal fluctuations, marine traffic or change ofdraft, and from possible support settlements. Since movement of the jacket is slow, all loading conditions can betaken as static.
Figure 5.3 Various phases of jacket loadout by skidding
Typical values of friction coefficients for calculation of skidding forces are the following:
● Steel on steel without lubrication: 0.25;
● Steel on steel with lubrication: 0.15;
● Steel on teflon: 0.10;
● Teflon on teflon: 0.08.
5.4.6 Transportation
These forces are generated when platform components (jacket, deck) are transported offshore on barges or self-floating. They depend upon the weight, geometry and support conditions of the structure (by barge or by buoyancy) and also on the environmental conditions (waves, winds and currents) that are encountered during transportation. The types of motion that a floating structure may experience are shown schematically in Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4 Types of motion of a floating object
In order to minimize the associated risks and secure safe transport from the fabrication yard to the platform site, it is important to plan the operation carefully by considering, according to API RP2A, the following:
● Previous experience along the tow route;
● Exposure time and reliability of predicted "weather windows";
● Accessibility of safe havens;
● Seasonal weather system;
● Appropriate return period for determining design wind, wave and current conditions, taking into account characteristics of the tow such as size, structure, sensitivity and cost.
Transportation forces are generated by the motion of the tow, i.e. the structure and supporting barge. They are determined from the design winds, waves and currents. If the structure is self-floating, the loads can be calculated directly. According to API RP2A, towing analyses must be based on the results of model basin tests or appropriate analytical methods and must consider wind and wave directions parallel, perpendicular and at 45° to the tow axis. Inertial loads may be computed from a rigid body analysis of the tow by combining roll and pitch with heave motions, when the size of the tow, magnitude of the sea state and experience make such assumptions reasonable. For open sea conditions, Table 5.2 gives typical design values. These criteria would typically be used with an assumed period of 10 s in order to calculate roll or pitch accelerations.
Table 5.2 Typical transportation barge motion criteria [6]
When transporting a large jacket by barge, stability against capsizing is a primary design consideration because of the high centre of gravity of the jacket. Moreover, the relative stiffness of jacket and barge may need to be taken into account together with the wave slamming forces that could result during a heavy roll motion of the tow (Figure 5.5) when structural analyses are carried out for designing the tie-down braces and the jacket members affected by the induced loads. Special computer programs are available to compute the transportation loads in the structure-barge system and the resulting stresses for any specified environmental condition.
Figure 5.5 Schematic view of launch barge and jacket undergoing motion
5.4.7 Installation (launching and upending)
These forces are generated during the launch of a jacket from the barge into the sea and during the subsequent upending into its proper vertical position to rest on the seabed. A schematic view of these operations can be seen in Figure 5.6.
Figure 5.6 Launching and upending sequences of a platform jacket There are five stages in a launch-upending operation:
a. Jacket slides along the skid beams
b. Jacket rotates on the rocker arms
c. Jacket rotates and slides simultaneously
d. Jacket detaches completely and comes to its floating equilibrium position
e. Jacket is upended by a combination of controlled flooding and simultaneous lifting by a derrick barge.
The loads, static as well as dynamic, induced during each of these stages and the force required to set the jacket into motion can be evaluated by appropriate analyses, which also consider the action of wind, waves and currents expected during the operation.
To start the launch, the barge must be ballasted to an appropriate draft and trim angle and subsequently the jacket must be pulled towards the stern by a winch. Sliding of the jacket starts as soon as the downward force (gravity component and winch pull) exceeds the friction force. As the jacket slides, its weight is supported on the two legs that are part of the launch trusses. The support length keeps decreasing and reaches a minimum, equal to the length of the rocker beams, when rotation starts. It is generally at this instant that the most severe launching forces develop as reactions to the weight of the jacket. During stages (d) and (e), variable hydrostatic forces arise which have to be considered at all members affected. Buoyancy calculations are required for every stage of the operation to ensure fully controlled, stable motion. Computer programs are available to perform the stress analyses required for launching and upending and also to portray the whole operation graphically.